Cause and effect on the Dred Scott Supreme Court Decision Essay

Cause and effect on the Dred Scott Supreme Court Decision - Essay Example The reasoning behind the Supreme Court decision on the Dred Scott Case is complex. The ultimate conclusion was that African Americans (Born abroad or in the USA) by nature of their heritage and race were not Citizens nor could they become Citizens and ultimately, were not protected by the Constitution. As such it was the case that slaves could not sue in court by nature of their citizenship rights, Moreover it was also decided that the American Congress didn’t have the ability to prohibit slavery and as such they could not be confiscated without some sort of due-process. The background of the case is stored. According to Watson.org (1998) Scott was a slave, born in Virginia around the turn of the 19th century and was owned by Dr. John Emerson (An Army doctor who frequently traveled). At some time during Emerson’s travels he brought Scott to several free-states for a period exceeding seven years. After the Death of Emerson, Scott claimed ill treatment by Emerson’s wife (Eliza) who denied his right to purchaser his freedom. Scot brought forward a case stating that he was free by virtue of his living in Free States and by his willingness to purchase his freedom. From the perspective of economic causes and effects of the Supreme Court decision on the Dred Scot case there are a number of factors at play. ... dollars were living in the USA around this time. This factor would weigh heavily on the decision makers. Ultimately as an effect, if the court ruling had gone another direction it would open the door to probably an endless supply of slaves bringing cases There were a number of social causes and effects pertaining to this court ruling. Even though there was a strong abolitionist movement it remained the case that blacks were regarded as beneath all whites. According to PBS (2011) it was the case that under the interpretation of the Constitution by Chief Justice Roger Taney (A slavery supporter) it was believed that blacks had no rights that white men were obliged to respect. Moreover because blacks had no rights and were as such beneath white men than blacks may be enslaved for the benefit of whites and can be treated as a piece of property. Building on this previous point, it was also argued that even though the Declaration of Independence stated that â€Å"All men are created equal † it was argued that the African race was never intended to be included as they had played no part in framing the declaration. As a result of this court decision, it is likely that this drove a greater wedge between abolitionists and slavery supporters insofar as the poorly argued rhetoric of this decision would have enraged most abolitionists. Moreover, the attempt by abolitionists to impose federal rulings on slavery supporters would have likely enraged this group as well. Without question, there were a number of political causes and effects that would have played a significant role in this court case and decision. Although it may seem like an over simplification, states that had abolished slavery were developing economies that could be described as being more

Prevalence of One Party Rule in African States Essay Example for Free

Prevalence of One Party Rule in African States Essay Africa, often known as the ‘Dark Continent’ rightfully occupies its place as the ‘Cradle of Civilization’ as the first humans have been known to originate from this continent of diverse ethnicities, tribes and clans. Since ancient times, the very nature of African society predicated formation of kingdoms and states centered on ethnicities and clans. Later, the advent of colonialism brought to Africa new forms of governance, which included democratization, socialism, communism and dictatorships. One enduring feature of African style of governance has been the prevalence of one party rule in most African countries. This paper examines why there is such a preference for such single party model of governance in Africa. To fully examine the subject, this paper shall first provide a historical overview of the progression of styles of governance in Africa and then examine the trends in major countries that make up the African continent. The paper will argue that the intrinsic nature of the African society and the effects of colonialism predispose them to following a one party rule. Historical Overview Africa is the world’s second largest continent both in terms of size and population and has 54 countries many of which are struggling democracies, a few communist regimes, and a number of authoritarian regimes bordering on dictatorship. Since ancient times, Africa had its indigenous systems of governance based on tribes and ethnic affinities. Africa also had great civilizations like the Egyptian civilization in 3300 B. C (Martin OMeara, 1995, p. 79). The earliest foreign influence came in 814 B. C. with the founding of Carthage in present day Tunisia under the Roman Empire which was followed by Persian domination of Egypt. In 332 B. C. , Alexander the Great replaced the Persian domination of Egypt and Roman rule continued in much of North Africa till the advent of Islam in the early 7th century (Martin OMeara, p. 99). In all these cases, the style of governance was centralized, as exercised by the emperor based in Rome or Persia through an appointed sovereign. The influence was limited mostly to North Africa, while the rest of Africa was considered too difficult to traverse due to thick jungles. Thus even in North Africa, from ancient times, the focus was on one –man rule and that more or less ‘conditioned’ the North African people to accept models of ‘uni-power’ in those times. Since the jungles were impassable and large number of tribes and ethnicities abounded, it was natural that rest of Africa had thousands of small kingdoms, states and at times independent nomadic tribes who dominated a particular territory. Each tribe had its own set of rules, customs, traditions and styles of governance, which again was predicated on the rule of one man or a tribal elder. The concept of Greek ‘city-state’ like democracy complete with a senate and an executive was non-existence. Over time, some of the tribes became more powerful and evolved into larger settled kingdoms that coalesced around similar ethnicities and language such as the Ghanaian empire that existed in 790-1076 A. D. followed by the Mali Empire from 1230 to 1600 A. D. (Martin OMeara, p. 70) The significant changes in style of governance came with the advent of colonialism. From the 18th century and by the late 19th century, most of Africa was divided up between the colonial powers; France, Britain, Portugal, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Italy and Netherlands. Under colonial rule, the African people had to undergo centralized rule of the colonial powers and the brutal suppression of any African revolt reinforced this submissiveness to a one-man rule. During the colonial period, the colonial powers brought with them their systems of governance, jurisprudence and legislation (Martin OMeara, p. 8). Colonialism lost its vigor in the early 20th century and by 1980, most ex-colonies in Africa gained independence. The former colonial powers before exiting from the continent tried to put into place systems of governance in ‘their own image’. Thus across Africa, a variety of ‘democratic’ systems took hold. Most of these ‘democratic systems were basically presidential forms of government, being the closest approximation to what they were used to both as per their pre-colonial experience and their colonial experience. The end of the Second World War gave rise to the Cold War and the Soviet Union tried to expand its influence in Africa also. This gave rise to numerous socialist-communist regimes in Africa that were opposed by the U. S. leading to proxy wars. Having examined the broad trends of the historical period of Africa till the advent of independence, the paper will now examine specific examples of how prevalence of one party rule exists in Africa. It is not intended to cover all 54 countries, but few sample countries that typify the various regions of Africa. For the ease of comprehension and brevity, Africa will be discussed under the heads North Africa, West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa and Southern Africa. North Africa North Africa because of its proximity to Asia had significant influence of Asian and Islamic traditions superimposed on ethnic African traditions and cultures. It is because of the spread of Islam in the 7th century, most of North Africa is Islamic. Islam, an egalitarian religion is considered as a complete body of work wherein all aspects of human life including politics and governance can be practiced through the Quran, the Holy book and the Hadith, the Islamic interpretation of Jurisprudence. Under Islamic law and Islamic political systems, an Islamic state is governed by a Caliph and where a Caliph no longer exists, then by a monarch or a ruler. Ideas such as secularism and democracy have very little congruence with the practice of political Islam. When such a system is overlaid over ancient tribal culture of a village head, it becomes natural that a state be ruled by a monarch or an authoritarian head and if not, the nearest approximation, a single grouping or party. Take for example, Egypt. Egypt, since ancient times was a land ruled by the Pharaohs, then the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Ottomans and the Arabs. In the colonial era, Egypt was ruled by Britain but the largely Islamic populace got independence from Britain in 1922 (Pateman El-Hamamsy, 2003, p. 28). Egypt was initially a constitutional monarchy and had adopted the British parliamentary system of government but constant political interference from Britain led to internal turmoil that finally resulted in a military coup in 1952 (Pateman El-Hamamsy, p. 28) in which the monarchy was overthrown and Egypt declared itself to be a Republic under General Muhammed Naquib. Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew Naguib in 1954 to become the Egyptian President. Nasser, on assuming power banned all political parties and created a one party named the Liberation Rally to run the government. This move helped him consolidate his power and rule Egypt till his death in 1970 after which he was succeeded by Anwar El-Sadat, the vice President (Pateman El-Hamamsy, p. 29). Sadat carried out political reforms and reverted to a multi-party system (Pateman El-Hamamsy, p. 31); creating one of the parties called the National Democratic Party and remained the President till he was assassinated in 1981 by a group of Egyptian army officers during an army parade (Pateman El-Hamamsy, p. 29). Sadat’s successor, Hosni Mubarak is still in office since 1981 and is the present leader of the National Democratic Party. Though by the Egyptian constitution, multi-party system is allowed, due to sustained state patronage, the National Democratic Party is the only party which has the necessary financial and political clout to win elections. There are other smaller parties that have virtually no chance of winning a single election and till to date Egypt is essentially ruled by a single party. Libya, a British colony was declared as a monarchy under King Idris in 1951 but was overthrown by a revolution led by Colonel Muammer al-Gaddafi in 1969 (Wright, 1981, p. 130) who has ruled the country ever since. Political parties were banned by Gaddafi in 1972 and the country is ruled by the ‘revolutionary leader’, Gaddafi aided by a Revolutionary Committee also called as the People’s Congress. Tunisia was a French protectorate that became independent in 1956 and adopted a Presidential form of government, copying the French model, except that it rapidly turned into an authoritarian police state where most ‘Presidents’ have been military personnel. The present incumbent, President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali is a former military officer (Perkins, 2004, p. 7). On paper, political parties are allowed but in reality, it is only the President’s party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally that gets almost all the seats. The rest of the political parties are usually browbeaten into submission by the state’s security system and there is virtually no free press. The farcical nature of Tunisian ‘democracy’ can be gauged by the fact that in the 2009 presidential election, Ben Ali received 89. 62% votes to continue as the President (Lowe Amara, 2009, p. 1). The ancient kingdom of Morocco, a French and Spanish Protectorate gained independence in 1956 as a constitutional monarchy, a system that continues till to date. Though the King of Morocco has a prime minister, a parliament and a multi-party system, the style of governance continues to be rule by one man, the King (Forum, 2008, p. 49). West Africa In West Africa, the situation is slightly different. Here more than Islamic influence, it was the effect of local dynamics, ethnic rivalries, Christian missionaries and communist influence that has determined the preference for single party rule. Take for example Liberia, the only other country other than Ethiopia which has an American connection rather than a European past. Liberia was created through a private American enterprise to house freed African American slaves and became independent in 1847. Since, the project was American led; Liberia adopted a presidential form of system. However, the American backed Liberian elite who ruled the country came in conflict with 16 other indigenous ethnicities living in Liberia. Since the regime was thrust ‘top down’ from the Americans, tensions quickly developed and a coup by a group of ethnic military soldiers led by Samuel Doe took place in 1980. Doe replaced the presidential republic with his authoritarian regime. Political parties were allowed to exist but their freedom remained curtailed by the regime which furthered the hold of its own party, the National Democratic Party of Liberia. The 1985 election results in which the opposition Liberal Action Party won were declared invalid by Doe, which led to the Liberian Civil War in 1989. Doe was killed and the power passed into the hands of Charles Taylor (Moran, 2008, p. 106), who continued his dictatorial regime which again led to another civil war in 1999 that continued up to 2003 and only came to halt with Charles Taylor being forced into exile in Nigeria. From 1847 till 2003, Liberia was ruled by the Americo-Liberian elite and their single party. Since 2003, a transitional government was put into place with international intervention, which because of corruption was dissolved and fresh presidential elections were again held in 2005 and was won by Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, the head of Unity Party who became the first woman President of an African country (Polgreen, 2005, p. 1). Nigeria got its independence from Britain in 1960 and had numerous political parties. These political parties were sharply defined along ethnic lines comprising of three main ethnicities; the Hausa, the Igbo and the Yoruba (Rotberg, 2007, p. 19). The Yoruba dominated Nigerian National Democratic Party won the elections in 1965, which led to political dissensions and instability resulting in two military coups in 1966. This did not resolve the problem as the Igbo, dominating the Eastern region of the country declared independence from Nigeria leading to the Nigerian civil war 1967-1970 that led to over a million deaths. The civil war ended but not the ethnic strife and the military continued to rule Nigeria with coups and assassination of the presidents being a regular feature. For thirty years, Nigeria continued under military rule till 1999 when it finally elected Lusegun Obasanjo, a former military dictator as its President. Obasanjo was re-elected in 2003 (Rotberg, p. 13) as the President amidst allegations of rigging. Obasanjo was replaced by Umaru YarAdua of the People’s Democratic Party in 2007 and on his demise now been replaced by Goodluck Jonathan (Nossiter, 2010, p. 1). So while the American model was adopted, the actual functioning of a presidential type of government has been a recent development in Nigeria’s history. At present there are two main parties in Nigeria, the ruling People’s Democratic Party and the opposition All Nigeria People’s Party with numerous smaller parties. What must be noted is that a democratic political system in Nigeria is still nascent and fragile and should ethnic differences arise again it will not be long that another military coup will take place in the interests of ‘national security’. Angola became independent in 1975 after having been a Portuguese colony from the 16th century. Angolan independence came right in middle of the Cold War where Soviet influence in Africa was rising. The independent country was immediately plunged into a civil war between the Soviet backed Communist MPLA faction and the American backed anti-communist UNITA rebels (Sheehan, Yong, Lin, 2010, p. 38). The Angolan civil war continued for 27 years (Sheehan, Yong, Lin, p. 43) till declaration of ceasefire in 2002 by which time over 500,000 people were killed. The ideological factions had an ethnic base too wherein the MPLA comprised basically Angolans of the Kimbundu clan and the UNITA, the Ovimbundu tribe. Presently, the Communist MPLA holds power in Angola. As can be deduced, this being a communist regime with no legitimacy, the concept of political parties in a democratic system does not apply. East Africa East Africa including the Horn of Africa portrays a region of extreme instability with a few deceptively stable nations. Sudan, the first country being analyzed, after gaining independence from Egypt and Britain in 1956, was gripped by a civil war till 1973 (Barker, 2008, p. 16). This civil war was basically because of ethnic differences between the people of Northern Sudan (Islamic of Arabic lineage) and Southern Sudan (non-Islamic of non-Arab lineage). While the civil war raged, Khartoum was ruled by the Sudanese military. A ceasefire in 1973 negotiated through granting autonomy to Southern Sudan kept the peace till 1983 when the military general, and the de-facto President, Nimeiry unilaterally decided to incorporate Southern Sudan into a federation. The civil war continued (Barker, p. 18), Nimeiry was ousted in 1983 and replaced by a democratic government under Prime Minister Al Sadig Al Mahdi which was not recognized by the Sudan’s People Liberation Army (SPLA) of Southern Sudan. Civil war continued anew. In 1989, Colonel Omar al-Bashir over threw Prime Minister Al Mahdi, abolished political parties and established an Islamic code on entire Sudan. Al-Bashir formed the Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation and allied his group with National Islamic Front to consolidate Islamization of firstly, Northern Sudan and then the rest of the country. In the subsequent military action by the Sudanese army, the SPLA were defeated in Southern Sudan by 1994. Having achieved consolidation, Bashir dissolved the revolutionary council in 1993. In the 1996 election Bashir declared himself to be the only candidate eligible to run for President. All other political parties were disbanded and Bashir converted Sudan into an Islamic state with single party at its helm – the newly created National Congress Party (NCP). Meanwhile, Bashir unleashed a brutal war of suppression on the non-Arab ethnic minorities in the Darfur region using proxy militia known as the Janjaweed that has resulted in deaths of over 400,000 Darfuris (Kessler, 2005, p. 1) leading to an indictment of Al-Bashir by the International Criminal Court for war crimes and genocide. At the tip of the Horn of Africa lies the failed state of Somalia where no functional government exists. Somalia was never formally colonized by any power and had come under a variety of influences ranging from Islamic influence during the Ottoman Empire, Fascist influence under Mussolini’s Italy and then British military administration from 1941 that was replaced by the formation of a republic of Somalia in 1961 with a parliamentary form of government (Lewis, 2008, p. 33). This brief democratic interlude was shattered in 1969 when President Shermake was assassinated and replaced by a military government. The military created the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party in 1976 and ruled the nation till 1990. Meanwhile, various Islamic factions and clans grew in size and potency that overthrew the military government leading to a series of skirmishes through the period, 1990-1991. The long standing military dictator, Siad Barre was ousted in 1991 and President Ali Muhammed was installed, yet the civil war continued. The UN Security Council approved the United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM) in 1992 that has since been replaced by UNOSOM II with no success. Presently, a Transitional Federal Government (Lewis, p. x)is the internationally recognized government of Somalia whose writ does not even run through the entire city of Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia. In the dismal narrative so far, Kenya appears to be a bright democratic spark in the African continent. After achieving independence from Britain in 1963, Kenya adopted a semi-presidential form of government albeit, with the peculiar African preference for single party rule. The Kenyan constitution mandated formation of only a single party in Kenya. Governments continued to be formed under the single party system until 1992 when electoral reforms were introduced to allow a multiparty system. The elections since then have been held in generally free and fair manner. The 2007 elections were marred by allegations of rigging in which the main opposition party, the Orange Democratic Freedom accused the ruling Party of National Unity for stealing the election. In the ensuing rioting, over 1000 Kenyans lost their lives (Raghavan, 2010, p. 1) and hundreds of thousands were displaced. Peace was restored through international mediation in 2008 and the country is presently being run by a grand coalition of members of both the parties under a new constitution (Raghavan, p. 1). Kenya’s relative stability is attributed to the British colonial era, where unlike the rest of Africa, the colonists set up educational institutions and government infrastructure. Also, unlike the other African countries, 78% of Kenyans are Christians while 10% are Muslims, 10% indigenous and the rest 2% are Asian immigrants (CIA World Factbook, 2010, p. 1). Central Africa In Central Africa, the Republic of Congo has been in the news for decades for all the wrong reasons. Congo received independence from France in 1960 and adopted the French presidential model of governance. However, the first President, Fulbert Youlou was ousted in 1963 by a military coup, which then installed a puppet civilian government (Rorison, 2008, p. 225) and also adopted communist ideology. In 1965, the Congo republic formally joined hands with the Soviet Union, firmly coming into the soviet bloc (Rorison, p. 226). This alignment did not bring about political stability as the original French democratic influence clashed with the ‘uni-power’ Soviet ideology leading to a series of coups and dictatorship under Denis Sassou. During his first spell of rule from 1979 to 1992, Sassou ruled Congo under a single party rule of the Congolese Labor Party (PCT) (Rorison, p. 227). When external pressures grew strong, he introduced multiparty system in 1990 and was defeated in the 1992 Presidential election. Sassou’s ouster led to a civil war between the supporters of Sassou and his competitor Pascal Lissouba. Sassou, a former colonel won the civil war and proclaimed himself as the President in 1997. In 2009, Sassou was sworn in for another seven-year period (Amnesty International, 2010, p. 1). In Congo’s case too, for most of its independent history, the country has been ruled by a single party and now despite a multi-party ‘democracy’ in place, the original political party, the PCT continues to rule the country. Southern Africa In Southern Africa, any discussion regarding Africa would remain incomplete without illustrating the case of Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe, originally Rhodesia became independent after a violent struggle with the British in 1980. Throughout the period, 1965-1979, the country was engulfed in a civil war between British government forces and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) led by Robert Mugabe and the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) led by Joshua Nkomo as also a number of smaller splinter groups (Raftopoulos Mlambo, 2009, pp. 141-165). In the 1980 elections, Robert Mugabe won by a wide margin but fighting with opposing parties and groups continued. The two main parties the ZANU and ZAPU fought bitterly until 1988 when ceasefire was declared and the two parties merged into ZANU-PF thus starting Zimbabwe’s slide into single party dominated system (Raftopoulos Mlambo, p. 179). Till to date the ZANU-PF has won every single election by force. Mugabe’s policies of throwing out the white farmers and forcibly occupying lands and giving it to the poor black resulted in economic sanctions by the West and a meltdown of the economy. Owing to his bad economic policies, hyperinflation struck the country and created political space for Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change to challenge him in the 2008 elections. The results were rigged but could not conclusively establish Tsvangirai’s claim of having won the elections. In September 2008, Mugabe maintained his power as the President by agreeing to share power with Tsvangirai who became the Prime Minister (Raftopoulos Mlambo, p. xxxii). Yet again, the single party rule dominates Zimbabwe. Finally, a discussion of Africa would be incomplete without examining its most prosperous and advanced state – South Africa. In South Africa, the colonial power, the Dutch did not relinquish their hold over the country and continued in the form of Apartheid, which was once again predicated on the dominance of a single party – the White minority party thereby conditioning the people of South Africa to rule by a single party. However, the violent suppression of the minorities could not continue indefinitely and ever since 1961, when South Africa left the British Commonwealth (Berger, 2009, p. 166) the white minority National Party faced constant protest from the black majority for equality. Till 1993, the National Party had banned other political parties (Berger, p. 166) and it was only in the face of sustained international pressure and internal struggle by the black and colored populations that the ban was lifted in 1993 and the African National Congress (ANC) led by Nelson Mandela was allowed to participate in elections. In Mandela, the South Africans found a charismatic leader who exuded the moral authority and statesmanship, which promised to build a future for the suppressed races. Mandela delivered on his promises but also led to consolidation of the ANC as the only party of choice for the people of Africa. The National Party chose to merge with the ANC and this yet again showed the propensity of Africans to prefer single party rule. Conclusion In conclusion, it can be reiterated that analysis of all the regions of Africa shows a remarkable similarity of circumstances that seemed to have shaped their preference for single party rule. The ethnic make up into tribes and clans were at the most basic level, the building blocks for adhering to the instructions of the clan leader or village headman. This obedience in turn was further conditioned by brutal colonial rule, where the colonial masters used every suppressive means to keep the Africans submissive. Suppression and exploitation itself became the rallying point for the African clans to unite and fight for their independence. Since most of the colonial powers only exploited Africa and did not build institutions, the succeeding indigenous governments had no infrastructural back up to employ their people or give immediate succor; naturally, the people fell back to tribal and clan loyalties as rallying forces. Since these points of opposition had to be formed clandestinely, they became sort of secret societies that formed oligarchic groups to fight for independence. On attaining independence the basic dynamics of the groups did not change and they continued as a closed ‘in-group’, which only heightened social inequalities and strife broke out in most cases. As democratic institutions had not been allowed to mature under the colonial period, people tended to cluster around the ‘village headman’, in other words, any leader with some charisma and since one institution that always has a clearly defined leader is the army, most governments became victims of military takeovers. The populace conditioned by colonial repression now became victims of military repression. Military forces needed a ‘democratic fig leaf’ to govern nations and so they set up political parties which were then headed by serving or former military officers to perpetrate the rule of a single party in the states. Parts of Africa that had predominantly Islamic influence adopted Islamic laws, which ideologically are not compatible with democratic secularism. Therefore, these countries by default became ruled by a king or a dictator or by a single party. Where the Cold War intruded the African political space, communist regimes under laid by African tribalism became the dominant feature. In these cases, the political ideology required the rule of the state by a single party. Later, when communist regimes fell, the old habit of single party rule lingered on. Thus the assertion that there is prevalence of one party rule in African states is emphatically proved. However, as can be seen from the examples of African states discussed, the hold of one party system is slowly changing. Multiple parties are emerging as the African people are becoming more aware of the wider world through the process of globalization. They are also realizing the need for multiple choices for governance as a panacea against corruption and despotism. So while the one-party prevalence in Africa may seem predominant at the present, political evolution of the African polity is taking place that will, in time transform into a more inclusive political process across the continent. References Amnesty International. (2010). Congo (Republic of). Retrieved August 11, 2010, from http://www. unhcr. org/refworld/country,,,,COG,,4c03a835c,0. html Barker, G. (2008). Sudan. NY: Marshall Cavendish. Berger, I. (2009). South Africa in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. CIA World Factbook. (2010, August 3). Kenya. Retrieved August 11, 2010, from https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ke. html Forum, A. P. (2008). An Audit of Police Oversight in Africa. Cape Town: African Minds. Kessler, G. (2005, April 27). State Dept. Defends Estimate Of Deaths in Darfur Conflict. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from Washington Post: http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/26/AR2005042601397. html Lewis, I. (2008). Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. NY: Columbia University Press. Lowe, C. , Amara, T. (2009, October 26). Tunisian President Wins Fifth Term in Office. Retrieved August 11, 2010, from Reuters: http://www. reuters. com/article/idUSTRE59P03M20091026 Martin, P. M. , OMeara, P. (1995). Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Moran, M. H. (2008). Liberia: The Violence of Democracy . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. Nossiter, A. (2010, February 9). Nigerian Parliament Names Acting President. Retrieved August 11, 2010, from New York Times: http://www. nytimes. com/2010/02/10/world/africa/10nigeria. html Pateman, R. , El-Hamamsy, S. (2003). Egypt. NY: Marshall Cavendish. Perkins, K. J. (2004). A History of Modern Tunisia . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Polgreen, L. (2005, November 12). In First for Africa, Woman Wins Election as President of Liberia. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from New York Times: http://www. nytimes. com/2005/11/12/international/africa/12liberia. html Raftopoulos, B. , Mlambo, A. (2009). Becoming Zimbabwe: A History from the Pre-Colonial Period to 2008. Harare: Weaver Press. Raghavan, S. (2010, August 6). Kenyans Celebrate Approval of New Constitution. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from The Washington Post: http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/05/AR2010080500525. html Rorison, S. (2008). Congo. Guilford: The Globe Pequot Press Inc. Rotberg, R. I. (2007). Nigeria: Elections and Continuing Challenges. NY: Council for Foreign Relations. Sheehan, S. , Yong, J. L. , Lin, Y. J. (2010). Angola. NY: Marshall Cavendish. Wright, J. (1981). Libya: A Modern History. Beckenham: Croom Helm Ltd.

Magnificent Minds Of The Renaissance in Europe Essay -- essays researc

The high renaissance of the 1500's was a time of scientific, philosophic, and artistic awe and inspiration. Many new discoveries were being made in the field of science, and philosophers expressed their assumptions on the world and universe around them. In addition, many individuals were gifted with artistic dexterity and skill. The amazing achievements of Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci are considered significant to the Renaissance period. In this paper, the endeavors and achievements of these three Renaissance men will be examined and expressed. Born in 1475 in Italy, Michelangelo was raised in an era of artistic wonder. Not only an artist, but Michelangelo was also a poet, sculptor, and architect. Being gifted in these fields, Michelangelo wrote beautiful poetry and created magnificent sculptures, art, and architectural designs. By the time Michelangelo was sixteen, he produced two sculptures entitled Battle of the Centaurs and The Madonna of the Stairs, and in 1501, Michelangelo began working on his masterpiece "David." The marble statue of David astonished sculptors everywhere, and easily became Michelangelo's most famous sculpture. Michelangelo's painting talent was not so much applied in his canvas paintings, but rather in his gigantic frescoes. Some of his fresco works include The Last Judgment which is a large fresco behind the altar of the Sistine Chapel, and The Creation of Adam which decorates practically the entire ceiling of the Sistine C...

Henry David Thoreau Essay

Henry David Thoreau (1817 – 1862) was an American writer and philosopher famous for his naturalistic and anarchical ideas as well as his adherence to the movement of transcendentalism. Thoreau was a vegetarian, actively stood against slavery and war, and was one of the first who supported Darwin’s theory of evolution. Among his many works, the best known are his essay, Civil Disobedience, a proclamation against injustice and an urge for individual opposition to civil government, and the book ‘Walden’, where Thoreau’s reflects his personal experience of living simple life in natural environment. Although these works, like many others of Thoreau, are considered ‘transcendental’ and had been published ages ago, the ideas and concepts they contain may still at some point be related to the issues we may face while living in the 21st century. In general, the core of transcendental beliefs is a faith into a perfect spiritual state of mind that transcends both empirical and physical. It can only be realized through the person’s intuition, not through the doctrines of any existing religions. Therefore, it is rather a philosophy then a religion. The transcendentalism was grounded on principles that are ‘transcendental’, i. e.  based not upon sensual experiences but upon inner feelings and empirical, spiritual essence of a human. (En. wikipedia. org) American transcendentalism was mainly dominating in the first half of the 19th century, encouraging to abandon our mundane world, establish close relationship between human and nature, and to concentrate on ideal existence through spiritual abundance and self-reliance. Henry David Thoreau was admitted as a co-founder of this movement not only for his great thoughts on transcendentalism, but also for his empirical ideas and personal practice of his beliefs, which was greatly illustrated in his most famous book, ‘Walden’. The book firstly released as ‘Walden, or Life in the Woods’ (1854) was later widely recognized as one of the best non-fictional works of American authors. Living amidst woodland that belonged to R. W. Emerson, his friend and another founder of transcendentalism, near Concord, Massachusetts, in the small unpretentious self-built cabin, Thoreau mainly aimed to isolation from society for its better, more objective understanding. He stayed there alone for almost two years but kept receiving and returning visits. For example, he often went to Emerson’s hÐ ¾use for meÐ °l and conversÐ °tion. Moreover, as he indicates in the book, the cabin was located ‘at the edge of town’, not in the wilderness, even not far away from his family home. Therefore, he focuses reader’s attention on the importance of human’s closeness to the nature, self-reliance and meditation. The book combines Thoreau’s autobiography with a criticism of society, namely American consumerism, materialism, and nature destruction, – the issues still common in our century as well. Such experiment of cut-off living was made by Thoreau for special purposes. First, he tried to escape the negative effects of the Industrial Revolution through keeping agrarian lifestyle. Interesting fact, – the experiment was of a temporary character, and in the book Thoreau strongly advises his readers to avoid repeating it. Thus, anyone who studies Thoreau’s works has to keep in mind that at some degree they should be approached philosophically rather than understood literally. Second, the writer wanted to practically experience the main transcendental belief that every individual can transcend from normal to divine by means of nature itself. Like other members of the movement, in the ‘Walden’ Thoreau, for example, speaks about Vedic concepts to illustrate his vision of the nature. â€Å"I lay down the book and go to my well for water, and lo! There I meet the servant of Brahmin, priest of Brahma, and Vishnu, and Indra, who still sits in his temple of the Ganges reading the Vedas, or dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water-jug. I meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and our buckets as it were grate together in the same well. The pure Walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the Ganges. (Thoreau 221) At some point, Thoreau’s attempts to promote the ideals of transcendentalism may seem to be impractical and rather inapplicable. In fact, after an in-depth analysis, Thoreau’s ideals may even look infeasible, namely his appeals to ascetic way of living and refusal of common human needs. In the scope of critical thinking, impossibility to follow the idea of living without any blessings of civilization is rather obvious. The average American who lives in the 21st century can hardly imagine him- or herself without Internet connection, using cell-phones, driving cars, or going to supermarkets. Nevertheless, it is possible at certain degree. Moreover, due to global ecology problems, it even may become necessary for each of us to refuse some advantages of our daily welfare for the great purpose of saving the world from environmental catastrophe. For this reason ‘Walden’, as well as many other Thoreau’s works, is frequently quoted by specialists who work in various fields and are concerned with the environmental problems of the Earth in general and in the USA in particular. While the whole issue of bad ecology becomes more and more crucial, Thoreau’s idea of simple life in the forest turns out to be not as unsuitable as it seemed at first glance. It is important to mention that Thoreau’s works on natural history is a great anticipation of findings and methods in the fields of ecology and the history of environment, which later became main sources of nowadays movement of environmentalism. In the book ‘Earth Rising: American Environmentalism in the 21st Century’ we read that â€Å"some 150 years ago, transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau, sitting in his tiny cabin on Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts, was already mourning the loss of the wilderness and the debilitating effect of industrialism on the human spirit†. (Shabecoff 16) Thoreau significant influence onto the entire concept of nature preservation and conservation is unquestionable. â€Å"In the United States†¦ the movement expanded in the 1800s, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as John Muir and Henry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in people’s relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book ‘Walden’, which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern environmentalism†. The conservation movement is a political, social and scientific movement that aims to protect natural resources, including plant and animal species as well as their habitat for the future. Chiefly in the United States, conservation is seen as differing from environmentalism in that it seeks to preserve natural resources expressly for their continued sustainable use by humans. In other parts of the world conservation is used more broadly to include the setting aside of natural areas and the active protection of wildlife for their inherent value. (En. wikipedia. org) Because of Thoreau and his associates humanity became truly concerned about the nature, the world we live in. He can definitely be called a pioneer ecologist. Numerous contemporary movements and organizations prove the actuality of environment problem and therefore significance of all Thoreau’s works related to nature preservation. For example, his vision of the environmental issues in the 19th century became a ground for the book ‘From Walden to Wall Street: Frontiers of Conservation Finance’ written in the current times. â€Å"Why do we invest in conservation? Why do human beings invest their time, energy and financial resources in protection of land, plants, and animals? We invest in conservation because it is an expression of our faith in the future. Conservation investment is an expression of our faith in the future of natural systems that are essential to life on Earth. It is an expression of our faith in the future of deeply loved natural wonders. And it is an expression of faith in the future of our families and communities whose lives will be immeasurably enriched by the living world that we are striving to sustain†. (Levitt 3) Here is one more evidence on how outstanding were the Thoreau’s works and what a great impact they made and still do. In ‘Walden’ he included a famous aphorism that â€Å"in wilderness is the preservation of the world†. Thoreau kindled the Wilderness Religion that found fertile ground in America and provided a spiritual basis for conservation. In ‘The Main Woods’ (1864) Thoreau called for the establishment of national forest preserves, helping to set the stage for the National Park movement. (Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature 6) Despite of the fact that Walden is considered by some critics a failed experiment, the issues raised in the book are still of current importance. As 21st-century people, for instance, we suffer of consumerism and globalization, with their negative ethical aspects. Thoreau’s prophetic awareness of them is amazing, they are as relevant now, as they used to be in his century. He rejects consumerism, its adverse effect on society with its status stratification, and still teaches us lessons vital for our survival and progress. Another kind of ideas Thoreau often promoted in his works are related to anarchism and civil disobedience. Thus, let us shift our attention to this theme of Thoreau’s writings and discuss how those fit in the American viewpoint of the 21st century. In his disobedience to the American low of his times he was as prominent as in his attempts to bring humanity closer to the nature. He certainly was a key figure in the American radicalism. Disobedience was the main point in his endeavors to justifÃ'Æ' morÐ °l anÐ °rchism and to encourage each individual to act on the basis of their personal judgments, their personal opinion about the very justice rather than civil regulations. Unfortunately, Thoreau offers nothing instead and relies of his personal sÐ µnse of justice, which is univÐ µrsal. Here is the historical background of the essay. â€Å"’Civil Disobedience’ is an analysis of the individual’s relationship to the state that focuses on why men obey governmental law even when they believe it to be unjust. But ‘Civil Disobedience’ is not an essay of abstract theory. It is Thoreau’s extremely personal response to being imprisoned for breaking the law. † Because he opposed slavery and because tax revenues contributed to the support of it, Thoreau decided to become a tax rebel. He was arrested and imprisoned. It was short as a one night but has had enduring effect through the writing of ‘Civil Disobedience’ which has exerted its powerful force over time. (McElroy 2) In accordance with Thoreau’s ideals, the government of his days was far from perfection due to Mexican-American war and slavery expanded in the US. Therefore, the essay was written as anti-slavery and anti-war protest soon after the war’s beginning. Thoreau later wrote about governmental justice. â€Å"If it is of such a nature that requires you to be the agent of injustice to another, then, I say, break the law. Let your life be a counter friction to stop he machine†¦ Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also prison†. (Thoreau 259) In the essay the author urges American citizens to show their disagreement to government by passive disobedience without acts of violence. Such form of protest was later used by Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King who initiated movements for social changes. Thoreau was emphasizing the importance of acting upon the person’s ethical and moral beliefs. According to Thoreau, â€Å"unjust law exists: shall we be content to obey them, or shall we endeavor to amend them, and obey them until we have succeeded, or shall we transgress them at once? † This urge to disobedience is in tune with the message of ‘Walden’. Those who are not satisfied with the society should not obey its norms, and neither wait until the norms are changed, nor until the majority joins them, but live according to their own believes. Personal values should be compared to the ones of the contemporary society, and unless they comply, stick the voice of conscience. Thoreau also said that â€Å"it costs me less in every sense to incur the penalty of disobedience to the state, than it would to obey. I should feel as if I were worth less in that case. † (Thoreau 258) In fact, many of the issues pinpointed by Thoreau 150 years ago have not yet been overcome by the American society, and that strikes the most. He hated its slavish materialism as well as commercialism and believed that â€Å"the state should never rank above the individual conscience or the business of living. But if the state demands a person’s first allegiance by asking him to violate his conscience and participate in an injustice, the person should disobey – not through violence but by removing his cooperation. † (McElroy 3) Thoreau foresaw many issues typical to the modern American society. Over 150 years ago he predicted the crisis, spiritual and moral, that now corrodes it. The writer still begs us to slow down our hectic lives, to review our values, and to live in harmony with our consciences. He repeatedly talks about the possibility to establish a society where the justice is appreciated and the beauty of the nature is preserved.

A Person in Public Life

A Person in Public Life that I want to become for a Brief Period in Time. If I were to become somebody else for a brief period of time, I would like to be the President of United States.I have known many people who have been asked this question and more often than not, they would answer Bill Gates or Oprah; but for me, I chose the President. Given this opportunity I would not think twice to choose the most powerful and influential man in United States.I want to be able to use that little time that I was given to do something worthwhile. The president has the capability to make change and impact the lives of millions of people. If an opportunity such as this would indeed present itself, I would make sure that every minute counts and that no time is wasted.As President, I would focus my attention to formulating strategies to solve the worsening economic problems such as increasing individuals access to capital, focusing on consumer’s awareness and financial literacy and minimizi ng predatory lending.I believe America should protect the family because as the most basic unit in the community, strong families provide a chain reaction which would reflect a strong community, a strong state and ultimately a strong society. I will put premium to the quality of work force because it would lead to stable jobs and ultimately a stable economy (Solutions for America, 2003).The dream of becoming a President and implementing change in the society sounds really idealistic but idealism is where everything started and in my opinion, it should not end there as well. Throughout history, we have witnesses different people turn these idealisms into visions and these visions into actions which our Country is reaping now. If it were not for the founding fathers’ bravery, the United States Constitution would still be a dream.After that brief period of time is over, I can still do something to effect change in my family and in the community that I live in. Like what Presiden t Obama said, we cannot expect the government to solve all our problems. If we want change, we must start somewhere and I think that the best place to start is with the people within our arms reach.ReferenceSolutions for America. (2003). The Guide for Civic Problem Solving. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from http://www.solutionsforamerica.org/index.html   

Essay about Homeschooling vs Public

Essay about Homeschooling vs Public Essay about Homeschooling vs Public Homeschooling VS Public As a new parent, one must eventually face the big question -what is the best type of education for your child, public or home school? This is such a huge question, and one that can make or break the child. Choosing the correct type of schooling can decide how well the child does in life, or what college he or she may attend. â€Å"A con or a pro, depending on how you look at it is that children and parents are in the same vicinity for days at a time. Some parents cherish that time with their children and some parents are driven crazy if their kids are not out of the house. Again, going back to the first considerations, you must analyze yours and your children’s needs.† (Education Bug) There are pros and cons to both, just like Education Bug suggests. The parent will need to address both sides and see what is best for their child and their family environment. Public schooling is beneficial for a child, despite some drawbacks, because it can provide active social development, extracurricular activities, and teaches the child to work in a team environment. Public school offers interaction with peers and other children. This will help develop their social skills, which in turn will help them become more successful in life. Public school teaches the child to learn from others, like teachers and students, instead of just the parent. Going to public school will help the child to learn what learning skills benefit them the most. Like how they learn hands on or by reading and then doing. Going to public school also has its cons: it can subject the child to peer-pressure and bullying. If the child was homeschooled, he or she would not encounter as many situations for possible peer-pressure or bullying. Homeschooling also helps by allowing the child to learn at their own pace. Sometime certain subjects are harder for a child and they need a little more time to focus on that subject. Public schooling sometimes does not offer this as they are on a strict schedule and the teachers have twenty-plus other students to attend to. There is also the one on one time the child has with his teacher/parent that he/she would not get in the public school. The following are some statics that show why parents have chosen to remove or enroll their child in homeschooling: â€Å"In 2007, the most common reason parents gave as the most important was a desire to provide religious or moral instruction (36 percent of students). This reason was followed by a concern about the school environment (such as safety, drugs, or negative peer pressure) (21 percent), dissatisfaction with academi c instruction (17 percent), and "other reasons" including family time, finances, travel, and distance (14 percent).† (Institute of education scientists.) These statics show valid reasons as to why a parent would chose homeschooling over public schooling. In public school the child has many options for extracurricular activities like after school tutoring, sports, year book, or the school newspaper. There are plenty of opportunities to find out what interest the child, not what the parent wants the child to be interested in. Having after school extracurricular activities helps the parents if they work a full time job. The child learns and develops appreciation for an accomplishment, like when they win their first baseball game. The parent may not need to pay for daycare or some type of nanny if the child is participating in an extracurricular activity. Participating in extracurricular activities with public school can hurt the family budget as well. Not only is the budget affected, it also cuts down on the one on one time among the family. â€Å"For some families, the costs of their student's participation in extracurricular activities is simply too much. With shrinking budgets, schools contribute less and less to help cover the cost s of activities.† (Adkins) There are proven facts with today’s economy and the school budget shrinking each year more financial

Abenaki Life essays

Abenaki Life essays The Abenaki placed their villages near large water sources. The villages were made up of cornfields, cemeteries, family residencesand specialized buildings and spaces (the main area), and special huts andcamps. Groups of trails connected thedifferent parts of the village together. TheAbenaki spent some of the year in the main village. Here there were many bark houses with fires inside and holes inthe top for the smoke to come out. Their furniture consisted of woven mats, braches covered with hides, andmany furs for bedding. The longhouseswere large multiple family dwellings which housed 30-60 people. They used someof the special buildings for rituals, the shamans hut, and the sweat lodge.They would spend winter here, and would hunt and gather to survive. Summer would also be spent here, improvingthe village. There were not manyproblems in village life until European invasions. Therewere many seasonal camps for the Abenaki. In the early spring, they would go to camps to collect different kindsof bark and other building materials. They gathered different types of wood and bark for roofs, weapons,tools, and other necessary items. Inmid-spring the Abenaki would go to fishing camps. Since many of the villages were close to large water sources,people could often go home after a day of fishing. There was always plenty of fish and the leftover ones were storedin the main village. When the leavesbegin to turn (at the beginning of autumn) the Abenaki went to huntingcamps. They used bow and arrow, knife,lance hunting dogs, and later rifles. They hunted moose, deer, and bear. The women would skin and prepare the animals and the men would hunt. Thespecialized areas in the village were the council house, the dance ground, theshamans hut, the sweat lodge, the cemeteries, fields, and rock chambers. The council house usually faced the dancingground. Outside the house was the chief...

Ferdinand Foch - World War I - French Army

Ferdinand Foch - World War I - French Army Marshal Ferdinand Foch was a noted French commander during World War I. Having entered the French Army during the Franco-Prussian War, he remained in the service after the French defeat and was identified as one of the nations best military minds. With the beginning World War I, he played a key role in the First Battle of the Marne and soon rose to army command. Demonstrating an ability to work with the forces from other Allied nations, Foch proved an effective choice to serve as overall commander on the Western Front in March 1918. From this position he directed the defeat of the German Spring Offensives and the series of Allied offensives that ultimately led to the end of the conflict. Early Life Career Born October 2, 1851, at Tarbez, France, Ferdinand Foch was the son of a civil servant. After attending school locally, he entered the Jesuit College at St. Etienne. Resolving to seek a military career at an early age after being enthralled by stories of the Napoleonic Wars by his elder relatives, Foch enlisted in the French Army in 1870 during Franco-Prussian War. Following the French defeat the following year, he elected to remain in the service and began attending the Ècole Polytechnique. Completing his education three years later, he received a commission as a lieutenant in the 24th Artillery. Promoted to captain in 1885, Foch began taking classes at the Ècole Supà ©rieure de Guerre (War College). Graduating two years later, he proved to be one of the best military minds in his class. Fast Facts: Ferdinand Foch Rank: Marshal of FranceService: French ArmyBorn: October 2, 1851 in Tarbes, FranceDied: March 20, 1929 in Paris, FranceParents: Bertrand Jules Napolà ©on Foch and Sophie FochSpouse: Julie Anne Ursule Bienvenà ¼e (m. 1883)Children: Eugene Jules Germain Foch, Anne Marie Gabrielle Jeanne Fournier Foch, Marie Becourt, and Germain FochConflicts: Franco-Prussian War, World War IKnown For: Battle of the Frontiers, First Battle of the Marne, Battle of the Somme, Second Battle of the Marne, Meuse-Argonne Offensive Military Theorist After moving through various postings over the next decade, Foch was invited to return to the Ècole Supà ©rieure de Guerre as an instructor. In his lectures, he became one of the first to thoroughly analyze operations during the Napoleonic and Franco-Prussian Wars. Recognized as Frances most original military thinker of his generation, Foch was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1898. His lectures were later published as On the Principles of War (1903) and On the Conduct of War (1904). Though his teachings advocated for well-developed offensives and attacks, they were later misinterpreted and used to support those who believed in the cult of the offensive during the early days of World War I. Foch remained at the college until 1900, when political machinations saw him forced to return to a line regiment. Promoted to colonel in 1903, Foch became chief of staff for V Corps two years later. In 1907, Foch was elevated to brigadier general and, after brief service with the General Staff of the War Ministry, returned to the Ècole Supà ©rieure de Guerre as commandant. Remaining at the school for four years, he received a promotion to major general in 1911 and lieutenant general two years later. This last promotion brought him command of XX Corps which was stationed at Nancy. Foch was in this post when World War I began in August 1914. Part of General Vicomte de Curià ¨res de Castelnaus Second Army, XX Corps took part in the Battle of the Frontiers. Performing well despite the French defeat, Foch was selected by the French Commander-in-Chief, General Joseph Joffre, to lead the newly-formed Ninth Army. The Marne Race to the Sea Assuming command, Foch moved his men into a gap between the Fourth and Fifth Armies. Taking part in the First Battle of the Marne, Fochs troops halted several German attacks. During the fighting, he famously reported, Hard pressed on my right. My center is yielding. Impossible to maneuver. Situation excellent. I attack. Counterattacking, Foch pushed the Germans back across the Marne and liberated Chà ¢lons on September 12. With the Germans establishing a new position behind the Aisne River, both sides began the Race to the Sea with the hope of turning the others flank. To aid in coordinating French actions during this phase of the war, Joffre named Foch Assistant Commander-in-Chief on October 4 with responsibility for overseeing the northern French armies and working with the British. Northern Army Group In this role, Foch directed French forces during the First Battle of Ypres later that month. For his efforts, he received an honorary knighthood from King George V. As fighting continued into 1915, he oversaw French efforts during the Artois Offensive that fall. A failure, it gained little ground in exchange for a large number of casualties. In July 1916, Foch commanded French troops during the Battle of the Somme. Severely criticized for the heavy losses sustained by French forces during the course of the battle, Foch was removed from command in December. Sent to Senlis, he was charged with leading a planning group. With the ascent of General Philippe Pà ©tain to Commander-in-Chief in May 1917, Foch was recalled and made Chief of the General Staff. Supreme Commander of the Allied Armies In the fall of 1917, Foch received orders for Italy to aid in re-establishing their lines in the wake of the Battle of Caporetto. The following March, the Germans unleashed the first of their Spring Offensives. With their forces being driven back, Allied leaders met at Doullens on March 26, 1918, and appointed Foch to coordinate the Allied defense. A subsequent meeting at Beauvais in early April saw Foch receive the power to oversee the strategic direction of the war effort. Finally, on April 14, he was named Supreme Commander of the Allied Armies. Halting the Spring Offensives in bitter fighting, Foch was able to defeat the Germans last thrust at the Second Battle of the Marne that summer. For his efforts, he was made a Marshal of France on August 6. With the Germans checked, Foch began planning for a series offensives against the spent enemy. Coordinating with Allied commanders such as Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig and General John J. Pershing, he ordered as series of attacks which saw the Allies win clear victories at Amiens and St. Mihiel. In late September, Foch began operations against the Hindenburg Line as offensives began in Meuse-Argonne, Flanders, and Cambrai-St. Quentin. Forcing the Germans to retreat, these assaults ultimately shattered their resistance and led to Germany seeking an armistice. This was granted and the document was signed on Fochs train car in the Forest of Compià ¨gne on November 11. Postwar As peace negotiations moved forward at Versailles in early 1919, Foch argued extensively for the demilitarization and separation of the Rhineland from Germany, as he felt it offered an ideal springboard for future German attacks to the west. Angered by the final peace treaty, which he felt was a capitulation, he stated with great foresight that This is not peace. It is an armistice for 20 years. In the years immediately after the war, he offered assistance to the Poles during Great Poland Uprising and the 1920 Polish-Bolshevik War. In recognition, Foch was made a Marshal of Poland in 1923. As he had been made an honorary British Field Marshal in 1919, this distinction gave him the rank in three different countries. Fading in influence as the 1920s passed, Foch died on March 20, 1929 and was buried at Les Invalides in Paris.

Pascal's Wager Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pascal's Wager - Essay Example Pascal's Penses, then, is totally different from conventional reasoning since it endeavors to provide practical reasons for belief in God. Taking the gambler's parlance, Pascal is saying that one should "wager that God exists because it is our best bet (Hajek). According to Ryan (1994), this line of reasoning has roots in the writings of Plato, Arnobius, Lactantius. Pascal's wager, in a nutshell, is: if you believe in God and he does not exist, you share the same fate as those who do not believe in God - death. However, if He does exist, you stand to gain salvation, while the unbeliever still faces a static destiny - death. So the believer, technically, has nothing to lose and all to gain, while the unbeliever whether right or not about his or her wager will only face death in the end. Therefore it is only logical to wager on the choice that makes the most sense - belief in God. It, in a sense is a philosophical win-win situation. Pascal maintains that we are incapable of knowing whether God exists or not, yet we must "wager" one way or the other. Reason cannot settle which way we should incline, but a consideration of the relevant outcomes supposedly can. Pascal's line of reasoning is intriguing.

Why At-Risk Students Are in Such a Situation, Solutions Research Paper

Why At-Risk Students Are in Such a Situation, Solutions - Research Paper Example The issues expose students to severe conditions that make them terminate school, knowledge acquisition and furthering their careers. This latest trend is sending mixed signals to the world with scholars asserting that it may lead to a low supply of qualified human capital. This condition may also jeopardize innovation and creativity stalling the production of new items that meet the current technological needs of consumers. The scholars also assert that a high number of students who are not succeeding academically may expose society to high crime rates. This is because nations will generate several individuals who are not productive economically due to the lack of credible sources of income. The trend would also affect peace initiatives and general economic growth in various nations. This calls for the immediate development of a viable plan to mitigate issues that hinder students from attaining high academic achievements. These students need to receive proper career guidance and moti vation from teachers. They also need to be convinced to go to school and get valuable teachings on the benefits of education in their lives by key stakeholders in the education sector. Consequently, it is necessary to discuss challenges in the education sector while focusing on at risk. As noted by Lynn (1997), the number of students who are not successful academically is increasing. The increase is attributable to various complications that touch on social, economic, and political processes. These challenges hamper the capacity to record exemplary performance in diverse aspects. Firstly, poverty is a critical element that drives most learners away from school meaning that several students are performing dismally because they lack money to pay for their tuition expenses.

Material Handling in KIZAD, UAE Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Material Handling in KIZAD, UAE - Article Example Receiving of raw materials to the factory is also part of material handling. It is to ensure the correct goods come to the organization and also leave the organization to the customer. The essay will expand on the role and benefits of KIZAD. The primary focus will be on material handling in KIZAD. The Middle East is a world-class logistics hub due to its geographical location. This region has had significant developments in terms of material handling and warehousing. There has been much development in the logistic infrastructure part of UAE. Countries like Abu Dhabi have significant economic development due to the number of businesses that go through the country. There are materials that go through Abu Dhabi before they move to other regions in the world. It is a central point of moving goods across the world. It is, therefore, important that Abu Dhabi develops world class warehouses where the materials being transported are in safe hands. The warehousing business is now a significant part of the economy that has always been dominated by oil and gas. The material handling business in KIZAD has helped the economy grow by 6% every year thus making it enable vision 2030. Abu Dhabi has a fast growth  pace and the manufacturing industries at KIZAD are growing. The need to have warehouses where the materials have a safe handle is increasing on a daily basis. There is not enough knowledge concerning the fast growth of the economy, hence the need for more warehouses in Abu Dhabi. There have however been many warehouses cropping up due to the increase in demand and opening of the port last year. Lessons on how to handle this business are in need so as the goods remain protected and not get damaged during storage. It is important to understand the kind of goods one is handling, as different products require different attention.

The Human Resource Function Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Human Resource Function - Case Study Example Cadbury Schweppes has as its main objective the delivery of superior shareholder value. To achieve this objective, the company stresses the need for all employees to understand the different goals of the company so that they can tailor their efforts towards achieving these goals which will in turn lead the company toward its overall objective of delivering superior shareholder performance. This paper aims at looking at critically evaluating the nature and presence of the human resource strategy that appears to be in operation at Cadbury Schweppes in the light of the wider business strategy. The paper also presents a discussion of how the Human Resource Function can position itself toward delivering the people strategy based on evidence gathered from the case study as well as the understanding of the development of Human resource functions. Having said this, the paper will begin by critically evaluating the nature and presence of the human resource strategy in section 1.1 below and later a discussion how the Human resource function can position itself will be presented in section 1.2. The human resource strategy that appears to be in operation at Cadbury Schweppes seems to be in conflict with the company's business strategy. ... Its number one goal for 2004-07 is not excellence, innovation or developing its people. It is simply to deliver superior shareholder performance". The latter quotation clearly shows that Cadbury Schweppes does not care about developing its people, all it cares about is delivering superior shareholder value. According to Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall (1988: p. 451) citing Porter (1985) and Huselid (1995: p. 636) citing Begin (1991); Butler, Feris, & Napier (1991); Cappelli & Singh (1992); Jackson and Schuler (1995); Porter (1985); Schuler (1992); Wright and McMahan (1992), human resource management can help a firm obtain sustained competitive advantage by lowering costs, increasing sources of products and service differentiation, or by both. Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall (1988: p. 451) define competitive advantage as "those capabilities, resources, relationships, and decisions that permit a firm to capitalise on opportunities and avoid threats within its industry". Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall (1988: p. 451) further states that in order for a firm to achieve competitive advantage through human resources, the activities must be managed from a strategic perspective. Cadbury Schweppes seems to have missed out in this domain. It has focused most of its attention on delivering sharehol der value but fails to understand that it is only after integrating strategic human resource management into its business strategy that superior shareholder value may be delivered. Another interesting point is that even if Cadbury Schweppes has got some competitive advantage as demonstrated through its current levels of profitability, this competitive advantage may not be sustainable if it does not properly

Hispanic Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hispanic Diversity - Essay Example Diverse workforce acts as a competitive advantage to the companies. To a large extent organizational performance depends on handling its diversity issues. For selling products and services companies needs to handle many diversity issues because of their wide range of diverse customers. Organizations need to know diverse language, cultures, customers etc for fulfilling the needs and requirements of their customers and employees. This facilitates the company in achieving their goals and objectives (Jose 141). When a company understands the diverse needs, expectations and requirements of its organizational members and customer then it can enhance its business process and services which facilitates the firm in improving its performance and holding its place in the competitive global market. People of different cultures and countries are presently residing in U.S. Spanish people are presently dominating the U.S market. Business people, students, serviceman etc reside in U.S. Other than Spanish, people from another country like China, Latin America etc reside in the U.S. the basic differences among these people are in their culture, customs, habits etc. Hispanic people have covered the maximum part of U.S market. Hispanic people are very much associated with their family, unlike the present American people. The Spanish and Latinos people take care of their parents when they grow old. But the people of other cultures residing in America are very much concerned about themselves. American society believes in individualism but Hispanic people believe in collectivism. People of different income level stay in the U.S which enhances the socioeconomic differences in this state (Maffi 140). The market and workplaces of U.S are characterized with all of these differences for which companies operating in U.S market are trying to manage diversity issues.

The Human Resource Function Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Human Resource Function - Case Study Example Cadbury Schweppes has as its main objective the delivery of superior shareholder value. To achieve this objective, the company stresses the need for all employees to understand the different goals of the company so that they can tailor their efforts towards achieving these goals which will in turn lead the company toward its overall objective of delivering superior shareholder performance. This paper aims at looking at critically evaluating the nature and presence of the human resource strategy that appears to be in operation at Cadbury Schweppes in the light of the wider business strategy. The paper also presents a discussion of how the Human Resource Function can position itself toward delivering the people strategy based on evidence gathered from the case study as well as the understanding of the development of Human resource functions. Having said this, the paper will begin by critically evaluating the nature and presence of the human resource strategy in section 1.1 below and later a discussion how the Human resource function can position itself will be presented in section 1.2. The human resource strategy that appears to be in operation at Cadbury Schweppes seems to be in conflict with the company's business strategy. ... Its number one goal for 2004-07 is not excellence, innovation or developing its people. It is simply to deliver superior shareholder performance". The latter quotation clearly shows that Cadbury Schweppes does not care about developing its people, all it cares about is delivering superior shareholder value. According to Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall (1988: p. 451) citing Porter (1985) and Huselid (1995: p. 636) citing Begin (1991); Butler, Feris, & Napier (1991); Cappelli & Singh (1992); Jackson and Schuler (1995); Porter (1985); Schuler (1992); Wright and McMahan (1992), human resource management can help a firm obtain sustained competitive advantage by lowering costs, increasing sources of products and service differentiation, or by both. Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall (1988: p. 451) define competitive advantage as "those capabilities, resources, relationships, and decisions that permit a firm to capitalise on opportunities and avoid threats within its industry". Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall (1988: p. 451) further states that in order for a firm to achieve competitive advantage through human resources, the activities must be managed from a strategic perspective. Cadbury Schweppes seems to have missed out in this domain. It has focused most of its attention on delivering sharehol der value but fails to understand that it is only after integrating strategic human resource management into its business strategy that superior shareholder value may be delivered. Another interesting point is that even if Cadbury Schweppes has got some competitive advantage as demonstrated through its current levels of profitability, this competitive advantage may not be sustainable if it does not properly

Mobile Application for City Target Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mobile Application for City Target - Case Study Example E-commerce is an area that has grown tremendously. People can carry out transactions online. Various businesses have gone online for a number of reasons. First and foremost, e-commerce provides one with a platform to reach a larger customer base. A customer can purchase items from a different country from the comfort of their couch. This is made easier by the fact that internet users can access the internet from their mobile phones. For this reason then, it is crucial for businesses to create an online mobile application system that will ensure quality service provision to the customer. City Target is a state street store that deals with a range of products amongst them food, clothes and other household items (ABC, p.1). Through an online business system, the store is set to increase its profit margin. Through the use of a mobile application system, the store stands a better chance of easily reaching more of its customer. Specifically, looking at the professional clothes sale, the st ore can implement several options that can contribute to better service delivery. Online clothes shopping can prove to be challenging since a shopper has to take into considerations many things. Unlike physically shopping for clothes, with online shopping, a customer cannot try out the clothes to see whether they fit well or determine the material’s texture and whether it is to their liking. ... e anytime and anywhere, directly sending advertising and promotional information, better in-store navigation and enhancing customers’ ability to browse order and pay for products using their mobile phones (GS1 MobileCom 9). In shopping for clothes online, web applications have managed to support only basic functions. Some of the problems that a customer experiences include poor fit, mismatch of color and bad drape. This has an adverse effect on the business since the customer will be hesitant to buy a product next time because of dissatisfaction (Beck, p.1). Physically, these problems are catered for through the use of mannequins. Thanks to technological advancement, web applications have been manipulated to counter this problem. These applications cater for garment design, sizing and pattern derivation (Cordier 1). One such application is the 3D graphics technology. This technology offers a range of interactive operations. A shopper is able to adjust a 3D mannequin according to their body’s measurement, select and try different garment items and resize the garment to a mannequin. Furthermore, the application offers real time simulation with respect to garment movement. One store that has successfully used this application is Fits.Me clothes store. Through the store’s virtual room, shoppers are able to create a robotic mannequin with their dimensions and use it to fit clothes (Apparel, p.1). As a result, the company has increased its new customers’ sales by 57% (Fits.Me, p.1). By integrating such an application, City Target is assured of increasing its market base as it offers quality service to its customer. Secondly, City Target could also apply artificial intelligence systems. These systems are created to operate as human intelligence. They are similar to

What Do Expect in English 101 Essay Example for Free

What Do Expect in English 101 Essay What are my expectations from this course? â€Å"Either write something worth reading or do something worth writing.† Benjamin Franklin. Reading is essential for everyday living, regardless of my insufficient skills. At the University of the Virgin Islands, English 101 class I’m determine to enhance my love for reading and build a stronger vocabulary foundation. I’ve never had a passion for reading. I was never surrounded by peers or family that influenced to me read. I always preferred to watch a movie filled with lies than read a book that would greatly impact my life. Now realizing how important reading is I’m stuck in the back playing catch up, which I highly dislike, especially as a freshman student. In English 101 I’m prepared to force myself to read, magazines, newspapers, novel and especially poems. I’ll love to understand when other say â€Å"I love reading because, allows me to go places Ive never been, experience new things, explore possibilities and learn something new.† I’m into fiction books I like knowing I can fly on the back of a dragon, turn my boyfriend into a toad, marry a prince, save a kingdom, cast a spell, swing a sword and talk to the gods. Just crazy things that never actually happens in reality. Loving reading makes everything possible, dreams come true, your imagination takes flight and your problems fade as you take on the problems of those you are reading about. To create a stabilize vocabulary foundation not only would I wait for my professor to assign work, I’ll try my best to take the responsibility of doing my own outside of class work. Gaining knowledge about words I’ll read words from the dictionary just like Malcolm X did. Previous I emphasized on my love for poetry never have I been capable to share my love because of my lack of words, but I’m already to make difference. Even though others may see it as a â€Å"dead and done† language, learning a bit of Latin would never hurt and I intend o n learning a bit of it. Also in this class I plan to familiarize myself with lots of familiarize magazines, books and puzzles to build my vocabulary. In conclusion, enhancing my passion for reading and building my vocabulary are my expectations in this class and my endeavor is to come climb to the top, I know my professor cannot do it alone, I have applied myself and I will succeed.

Erik Eriksons Developmental Theory Case Study

Erik Eriksons Developmental Theory Case Study Human Development This human development assignment will discuss an overview of Erik Erikson’s background, theory and his eight developmental stages. Then this assignment will briefly discuss Mr Paki’s developmental stage and his experience .e.g. physical, emotional, cultural and social. Later it will discuss the actions and the support to assist Mr Paki with his situation. Part (A) Erik Erikson was a psychologist who developed his psychosocial development theory in 1963. He was born in 1902 in Germany; his biological father abandoned him before he was born. Erik Erikson studied arts and many different languages and after he graduated he worked as a professor. Moreover, in 1930 he married Joan Serson who was an artist and dancer but later on she helped Erik with his psychosocial development theory. Erikson was influenced by Freud’s development theory but Erikson also believed that human develop throughout their life span. However, Freud believed that our personality formed after the age of five (Bradley, 2002). Erik Erickson developed eight stages of human development and he also believed that each person go through every stages throughout life span. In each stage, Erikson believed that, â€Å"people experience a  conflict  that serves as a turning point in development. In Eriksons view, these conflicts are entered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure (Cherry, 2014.† The first stage is Trust versus Mistrust (birth to 1 year) in this stage an infant develops trust when a parent response to his/her needs. However, it can also lead to mistrust when a parent is not responding to them. Second stage is Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1 to 4 years) in this stage, children are learning to gain self-confident. For example, toilet training, children are learning to control their body’s function which can lead to self-independence and control. But if children who are not completing this stage, they are most likely to lose their confident. Third stage is initiative versus guilt (4 to 8 years), in this stage children begin to show their power and control over the world through sports and other social interaction. If a parent started to demand too much discipline they induce extreme guilt (Berk, 2010, p.17). Fourth stage is industry versus inferiority (8 to 12 years) in this stage, children start to gain confident to work with their peers cooperatively but inferiority begins when a child is not receiving encouragement from their parents, teachers or students which can lead to failure in the future (Berk, 2010, p.17). Fifth stage is identity versus role confusion (12 to 20 years) in this stage, children are started to identify their role in the world. For example, children are trying to find a way to fit into the society by creating a strong identity with interacting with others and relationships. Moreover, confusion occurs when a child has conflicts about his/her role in society (Berk, 2010, p.17). Sixth stage is intimacy and solidarity versus isolation (20 to 30 years) in this stage, young people enters into intimacy relationships in which they let other people see their physical characteristics of their nature. But young adult may feel isolated when they unable to become closer to others (Berk, 2010, p.17). Seventh stage is generativity versus self-absorption and stagnation (30 to 60 years) in this stage; middle aged adults provide help to the next generation, take place in community work and help others. According to Erickson the idea of generativity is that middle age adult’s attempts to produce something that makes a difference to society, for instance. Some middle adults may feel stagnation if they are not able to take responsibilities (Berk, 2010, p.17). Eighth stage is integrity versus despair (60 years to death) in this stage, late adults or older adults reflect back at their accomplishments and life satisfaction. For example, People feel proud of their achievements when completing this phase with no or few regrets. But people who do not succeed in this stage, they will have many regrets and might that feel their life has been wasted (Berk, 2010, p.17). Part (B) According to Erik Erickson’s theory of development Mr Paki is experiencing eighth stage which is integrity versus despair (60 years to death) because he is 70 years old. Moreover Mr Paki is more likely to experiencing the physical, emotional, cultural and social changes in his life. Physical When people get to this age group(60 years to death) they are more likely to experiencing respiratory system problems and Mr Paki is 70 years old and he has a history of Emphysema and it could be because of smoking or ageism. He also has fractured his right his and his movements are very limited. Barbeler (2013) mentioned that in this age, â€Å"their joints become less elastic and flexible with the loss and calcification of cartilage. The loss of bone density particularly affects long bones and vertebrae. The curve of the lower back changes resulting in a change to the centre of gravity.† (p. 233) Emotional In this stage older adults becomes more selective about whom they choose to spend their time with. In Mr Paki’s situation, he has lost his confidence and ability to cope with activities because of his fractured hip but his whanau visit him regularly and give him the support he need. Moreover he could be concerned and depressed about his wife who is dealing with early dementia. Cultural Ethnicity and linguistic diversity are can often create problems in one’s culture. A person with a diverse cultural background who is ageing in a different environment can face with many challenges (Barbeler, 2013). According to the scenario Mr Paki is Maori and he is been sent to rehabilitation, lack of cultural interaction and communication problems can lead to isolation and feelings of alienation. Social Mr Paki has limited movements because of his fractured right hip and he has lost his daily activity moments because of this Mr Paki is likely to be experiencing loss of confidence in his ability. He might be feeling lonely because there is no interaction between with his friends or community. He might be experiencing depression because in his age group, this is a serious condition and it can be linked with a loss of independent function, cognitive impairment, poor response to rehabilitation and diminished recovery. Older patients face many challenges as they go through the last stage of Erik Erikson’s theory which could be because of their retirement, changes in health status or relationships with friends and family. A nurse should always listen to their patients instead of making assumptions about what patient’s value or what they aim for in their life (Barbeler, 2013). According to the scenario a nurse will put in place actions and support to under physical, emotional, cultural and social to assist Mr Paki. Physical To assist Mr Paki with his physical condition, as he has fractured his right hip, he has limited movement and Mr Paki had lost his confident to cope with activities of daily living (ADL’s) References Bradley, M.E. (2002). Psyography: Erik Erikson. Retrieved from: http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mbradley/psyography/eriker ikon.html Barbeler, C. (2013). Older adulthood. In Koutoukidis, G., Stainton, K., Hughson, J. (2013). Tabbner’s Nursing Care: Theory and Practice. (pp 230-248). China: Libby Houston. Cherry, K. (2014). Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development: Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Retrieved from: http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocial theories/a/psychosocial.htm

Problems with Digital Imaging :: Photogpahy Images Pictures Essays

Problems with Digital Imaging â€Å"A picture is worth a thousand words†, Barnard, 1921. A critical use of images is for communications[1]. Images convey details and illustrate a specific scene in ways words could never do. People navigate the world primarily through sight, we can garner a great deal of information from just a glance. For hundreds of years, man made images, images created for a purpose to either illustrate a scene or capture a moment were done in the forms of paintings. These were basic to start, but improved with each passing year. Not too long after, there were a multitude of art styles, paintings who’s images were distorted, and strange, like those of Monet, and Picasso, but their purpose was not to capture the image as it were, but as they saw it, those painters were trying to show their audience a new way of looking at things. Photography entered the scene around the early 1800s, the first successful picture was produced in 1827 by Niepce[2]. Photographs historically have not been treated with the same attitude as paintings. Photographs are regarded as snapshots in time, faithfully recreating with unbiased attention to every detail in the scene, credible enough to be admissible as evidence in court. Fast forward to modern times, and with the advent of computers and digital imaging, the artistic expression of paintings has been merged with the unbiased realism of photographs to create realistic artistic expressions. No longer are artists limited to having to create images from scratch using their bare hands, and no longer are photographers limited to images only capture-able in the real world. But with great power, comes great responsibility, this is not a technology which should be taken lightly. Unchecked it would lead to mischief. Suffocate the technology, and you could be infringing on people’s right to free speech and artistic expression. Already the use of digital imaging has created great controversy. Ford Motor Company is in hot water over a series of television commercials depicting animals being mistreated by the advertised car, most notably one of a cat being decapitated with the sunroof of a hatchback[3]. The adult entertainment industry is usually always on the fore front of technology, and no doubt, always under fire for their use of technology. In this case, the use of digital imaging to create simulated child pornography.

Reflection on Beauty Practices

Beauty has been defined in many ways. In some cultures beauty is everything, its what makes them who they are and in some cases represents where they come from. For example in America white teeth and pink gums are desired to fulfill a beautiful smile; however the women of Senegal and the Philippines believe this is not true. To beautify their smiles, Senegalese tattoos their gums black, and the women of the B’laan tribe file and blacken their teeth. These women also convinced themselves that they are not only beautifying their smiles, however they are also maintaining dental hygiene.Some cultures are willing to go through pain to fulfill their idea of beauty. For example the women of china bound their feet to be more desirable to men. This process was extremely painful, their toenails were cut very short and their toes were curled under the sole of their feet until they were broken. This procedure limited women in their daily tasks. Tattooing of the gums in Senegal is also an extremely painful procedure. In order to achieve black gums one must go through excruciating pain, needles are repeatedly inserted in a rapid pace with black ink.About seven layers are ideal to achieve this desired look. Viewing these videos has giving me a better understanding of beauty in different cultures, and even though beauty is mostly shown on the outside it can also have a huge mental affect on people. I have also learned that cultural beauty tactics that has been passed down from generation to generation can also come to an end at times. It can be rather upsetting to the older generation, however it cannot be avoided, for generation can also change with time.

The Dictator Next Door

Eric Paul Roorda’s The Dictator Next Door is an insightful and incisive work of diplomatic history, studying the United States’ dealings from 1930 to 1945 with Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo, for years a foreign policy problem unto himself. It also demonstrates how the Good Neighbor Policy, which claimed to promote solidarity and peace among western hemisphere nations, came to allow dictators in Latin America â€Å"to run their countries however they pleased, so long as they maintained common enemies with the United States: first the fascists, then the communists† (1).The book is essentially a study of how the democratic United States tolerated and even supported military dictatorships in other nations, despite some diplomats’ desire to shun dictators and promote democracy abroad. Roorda’s main argument centers on how the despotic Trujillo presented the Hoover and Roosevelt administrations with problems, because he was no pliable puppet.Difficul t to control and a frequent embarrassment to the United States, Trujillo had few friends in the State Department, but the United States military and presidents backed him because he was neither fascist nor communist, and because the Good Neighbor policy called for supporting standing rulers, regardless of their methods. Roorda traces the history of Dominican-American relations and demonstrates how American influence on the region built for years before Trujillo’s rise.A former Spanish colony, the Dominican Republic was ruled by Haiti until its independence in 1844, after which the military assumed long-lasting control and foreign powers jockeyed for influence there. The United States’ influence increased steadily between 1860 and 1904, and culminated in the United States Marine Corps’ takeover in 1915. During this period, the American military trained Dominican men to serve in its constabulary and army, thus establishing a sort of school for dictators in which R afael Trujillo was its best student.Trujillo received training from the Marine Corps and earned an Army commission during this time, despite a history of criminal activity, including rape and extortion (for which he escaped punishment), and rose to the rank of general. Not the United States’ first choice as the Dominican Republic’s leader, he rallied the army to stage a coup in 1930, three years before the Good Neighbor policy was introduced, and was helped by the Hoover administration’s nonintervention policy, which preferred commerce over militarism as a means of promoting good will.Roorda explains the process in great detail in chapter two and does not spare the American government from sharp criticism. He maintains that Hoover’s desire to redeem the United States’ image in Latin America, as well as the administration’s unwillingness to back his ambassador (who distrusted Trujillo and refused to recognize him), helped Trujillo maintain hi s control.Wary of Theodore Roosevelt’s and Woodrow Wilson’s use of â€Å"gunboat diplomacy,† the Hoover administration recognized Trujillo because he seemed likely to protect American commercial interests and it was more politically expedient to recognize de facto regimes, dictatorships or otherwise. He even states plainly that the savvy Trujillo was able to play the American legation against the American military, which trained and obviously respected Trujillo. Clearly critical of American behavior in Latin America, Roorda states that â€Å"in the history of U. S.relations with its closest neighbors . . . the rhetoric of solidarity and protection against European aggression ran counter to the brutal logic and increasing momentum of U. S. territorial expansion and imperial ambitions† (23). He deems the policy paradoxical from the outset; while it promoted friendship with Latin America (which filtered into popular culture during the 1930s and ‘40s), Latin American intellectuals were less than enthusiastic because it relied on American authority and kept authoritarian regimes in power, Trujillo’s being the most egregious.During the Depression, Trujillo consolidated his power even further despite the Dominican economy’s near-collapse, receiving additional American economic aid, mainly because of his promises to protect American business interests. However, he soon became â€Å"the greatest source of instability in U. S. -Dominican relations. . . . As U. S. officials found out, the benefits of a ‘stabilizing’ dictatorship could be canceled out by an unreliable dictator† (87).Roorda maintains that the Good Neighbor policy itself was an empty, nebulous policy created by Franklin Roosevelt, whom he characterizes as â€Å"a master of innuendo, ambiguity, paradox, and the manipulation of disparate personalities† (91). In chapter four, Roorda characterizes Trujillo as a shrewd, image-conscious ma nipulator of public opinion on a par with FDR, but with total control of an intimidating military that crushed any opposition.Trujillo flouted his authority, renaming geographical features, parks, and even the capital city for himself, surrounding his rule with public spectacle, and assuming total control of the Dominican press in order to glorify his regime and even deify himself. One telling newspaper quote deemed him â€Å"so necessary that [the people] give him permanent power† and somehow dubbed his regime â€Å"super-democracy† (95).The American government, meanwhile, was aware of Trujillo’s transgressions yet played into his hands, even assisting his censorship campaign and public-relations efforts. While the United States was not fooled, Roorda implies, it played along in an effort to heed the Good Neighbor policy’s claim to support national sovereignty and thus allowed Trujillo a free hand. The entire book centers on a single recurring theme: the folly of a democracy supporting dictators.Roorda maintains that â€Å"the reliance on dictators to attain the traditional U. S. goals of stability and cooperation in Latin America meant having to ignore those instances when the strongmen themselves incited unrest and conflict† (147). The American military is partly to blame, since it trained Trujillo and treated him as a favored protà ©gà ©, while diplomats saw through the dictator’s pageantry and disapproved of his methods (Trujillo returned their disdain).Roorda casts a good deal of the blame at the Roosevelt administration, which, in its efforts to avoid heavy-handed intervention, allowed Trujillo to remain in power because he seemed to represent stability even while disrupting Dominican-American relations (with his conduct at home and his occasional bloody attacks against neighboring Haiti). In describing American logic vis-à  -vis Trujillo, â€Å"Dominican stability made him practical to deal with,† eve n if that meant turning a blind eye to the questionable ethics of backing brutal regimes that did not threaten American dominance or prosperity.At times, he argues, this meant that Trujillo was the proverbial tail wagging the American dog, getting his way because Roosevelt lacked the will or the political clout to intervene against him. The book uses ample detail and careful research in describing the United States’ paradoxical relationship with Trujillo, relying heavily on government documents, personal papers, the contemporary press, and a large number of secondary sources.While its assertions are not groundbreaking (recent diplomatic history is harshly critical of American support for brutal dictators), it is well-written, with concise prose and well-constructed arguments, on the whole an excellent diplomatic history. For scholars seeking an explanation of American relations with Latin America, and who do not mind its sharp criticisms of American foreign policy’s et hical lapses and oversights, The Dictator Next Door is well worth one’s while.